A Comprehensive Review of GIS-Based Spatial and Spatiotemporal Approaches in Road Traffic Accident Analysis
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.31185/wjes.Vol14.Iss2.892Keywords:
Spatiotemporal analysis, Spatial autocorrelation, Network analysis, Machine learning integration, Hotspot detectionAbstract
A bunch of factors may cause Road Traffic Accidents (RTAs), which adversely impact daily lives of people and cause significant economic, human, and social losses worldwide. These factors can be related to the roadway characteristics, driver behavior, and traffic demand. It is crucial to comprehend the spatial and temporal patterns of RTAs for an effective road safety planning and policy formulation. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a powerful tool to investigate RTA datasets throughout participating spatiotemporal and attribute information within a combined analytical framework. Thus, this study presents an inclusive review of GIS-based spatiotemporal approaches applied for RTA dataset. Some of frequently GIS approaches that have been utilized by literature such as Kernel Density Estimation (KDE), spatial autocorrelation measures, hotspot detection metrics, and network-based studies are reviewed in this study. By highlighting their limitations and assets, this study examines the resources of dataset that are utilized in RTA studies, such as datasets of hospital, police, and emerging GPS- and sensor-based. The review of this study highlights the main analytical challenges, like inadequate data quality, sensitivity to geographical scale, adjustable issues of area unit, temporal resolution limitations, and adaptability of limited model over domains. Besides, the scarcity of dataset in developing nations, artificial intelligence and machine learning integration, spatiotemporal modeling, and gaps in research, all of which are discussed in this research. The review of this study is an excellent tool for transportation planners, researchers, lawmakers for safety improvement by GIS-driven accident analysis for more predictive with combining prior research.
References
[1] W. H. O. (WHO). (2023). Global status report on road safety 2018.
[2] Ł. Faruga, A. Filapek, M. Kraszewska, and J. Baranowski, "Dataset for Traffic Accident Analysis in Poland: Integrating Weather Data and Sociodemographic Factors," Applied Sciences, vol. 15, no. 13, 2025.
[3] T. Tollazzi, L. B. Parežnik, C. Gruden, and M. Renčelj, "In-Depth Analysis of Fatal Motorcycle Accidents—Case Study in Slovenia," Sustainability, vol. 17, no. 3, 2025.
[4] S. Malkhamah, L. B. Suparma, and N. Sari, "Impact of Vehicle Speed on Traffic Accidents on Primary Arterial Roads (Case Study of Jalan Raya Anyer, Serang Regency)," International Journal of Transport Development and Integration, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 629-644, 2025.
[5] F. b. G. M. M. b. M. D. b. b. b. a. C. CAbALLINI, "A NEW METHODOLOGY FOR ACCIDENTS ANALYSIS: THE CASE OF THE STATE ROAD 36 IN ITALY," The International Journal of Transportation Development and Integration, vol. 5, pp. 278-290, 2021.
[6] B. A. H. Bedewy and M. H. Abdulameer, "Evaluating and Improving the Spatial Distribution Using GIS to Avoid Environmental Risks and Achieve Safety for Petrol Stations in the Nile District Center in Mahaweel / Iraq," International Journal of Safety and Security Engineering, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 433-444, 2023.
[7] K. Hazaymeh, A. Almagbile, and A. H. Alomari, "Spatiotemporal Analysis of Traffic Accidents Hotspots Based on Geospatial Techniques," ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, vol. 11, no. 4, 2022.
[8] P. Iamtrakul and S. Chayphong, "GIS-based analysis of spatio-temporal clustering of road traffic accidents in Bangkok Metropolitan Region (BMR), Thailand from 2012 to 2021," Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, vol. 31, 2025.
[9] A. Afolayan, S. M. Easa, O. S. Abiola, F. M. Alayaki, and O. Folorunso, "GIS-Based Spatial Analysis of Accident Hotspots: A Nigerian Case Study," Infrastructures, vol. 7, no. 8, 2022.
[10] M. G. R. Fahad, W. C. Zech, R. Nazari, and M. Karimi, "Developing a Geospatial Framework for Severe Occupational Injuries Using Moran’s I and Getis-Ord Gi* Statistics for Southeastern United States," Natural Hazards Review, vol. 23, no. 3, 2022.
[11] S. Moridpour, H. Zhu, Y. Zhou, and Y. Chen, "Identification of potential traffic accident hot spots based on accident data and GIS," MATEC Web of Conferences, vol. 325, 2020.
[12] D. K. Endashaw, K. A. Habtegiorgis, B. M. Al-Ramadan, H. M. Al-Ahmadi, and B. F. Deressa, "A systematic review on GIS-based road traffic accidents analysis and road safety audit," Computational Urban Science, vol. 5, no. 1, 2025.
[13] B. C. Jayasinghe, N. C. Withanage, and P. K. Mishra, "Evaluating Geographical Variations of Road Traffic Accidents in Matara, Sri Lanka: A Geospatial Perspective to Policy Decisions," Revue Internationale de Géomatique, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 707-729, 2025.
[14] B. F. Deressa, K. A. Habtegiogis, D. K. Endashaw, B. M. Al-Ramadan, and H. M. Al-Ahmadi, "A Systematic Review of GIS-Driven Road Traffic Accident Evaluation," Vehicles, vol. 7, no. 4, 2025.
[15] P. Abdullah and T. Sipos, "Exploring traffic accidents patterns: Spatial distribution and socio-economic determinants," Eco Cities, vol. 4, no. 1, 2023.
[16] P. Chen, "Integrating AI and GIS for real-time traffic accident prediction and emergency response: A case study on high-risk urban areas," Advances in Engineering Innovation, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 44-48, 2024.
[17] A. A. Khan and J. Hussain, "Utilizing GIS and Machine Learning for Traffic Accident Prediction in Urban Environment," Civil Engineering Journal, vol. 10, no. 6, pp. 1922-1935, 2024.
[18] H. Le Thi, T. Vu Thi Phuong, and T. Do Thi Phuong, "Road Traffic Accident Prediction by Machine Learning and GIS: Case Study in Thanh Hoa Province, Vietnam," Periodica Polytechnica Transportation Engineering, 2025.
[19] M. Wang, J. Yi, X. Chen, W. Zhang, T. Qiang, and O. A. Postolache, "Spatial and Temporal Distribution Analysis of Traffic Accidents Using GIS-Based Data in Harbin," Journal of Advanced Transportation, vol. 2021, pp. 1-10, 2021.
[20] J. Z. Wesam Alkhadour , Adnan Al-Helali , and Sajeda Al-Ghananeem, "Traffic Accidents Detection using Geographic Information Systems (GIS)," (IJACSA) International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications, vol. 12, no. 4, 2021.
[21] H. Zubaidi, I. Obaid, H. A. Mohammed, S. Das, and N. S. S. Al-Bdairi, "Hot spot analysis of the crash locations at the roundabouts through the application of GIS," Journal of Physics: Conference Series, vol. 1895, no. 1, 2021.
[22] M. Özcan and M. Küçükönder, "Investigation of Spatiotemporal Changes in the Incidence of Traffic Accidents in Kahramanmaraş, Turkey, Using GIS-Based Density Analysis," Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing, vol. 48, no. 7, pp. 1045-1056, 2020.
[23] H. Wang, Z. Liu, Z. Liu, X. Wang, and J. Wang, "GIS-based analysis on the spatial patterns of global maritime accidents," Ocean Engineering, vol. 245, 2022.
[24] K. Aati, M. Houda, S. Alotaibi, A. M. Khan, N. Alselami, and O. Benjeddou, "Analysis of Road Traffic Accidents in Dense Cities: Geotech Transport and ArcGIS," Transportation Engineering, vol. 16, 2024.
[25] Ș. Bilașco and T.-C. Man, "GIS-Based Spatial Analysis Model for Assessing Impact and Cumulative Risk in Road Traffic Accidents via Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)—Case Study: Romania," Applied Sciences, vol. 14, no. 6, 2024.
[26] S. A. Aldala’in, N. S. Abdul Sukor, M. T. Obaidat, and T. S. B. Abd Manan, "Road Accident Hotspots on Jordan’s Highway Based on Geometric Designs Using Structural Equation Modeling," Applied Sciences, vol. 13, no. 14, 2023.
[27] M. Q. Ghadi, "Multilevel Analysis of Road Accident Frequency: The Impact of the Road Category," International Journal of Transport Development and Integration, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 123-130, 2023.
[28] M. W. Khattak, H. De Backer, P. De Winne, T. Brijs, and A. Pirdavani, "Analysis of Road Infrastructure and Traffic Factors Influencing Crash Frequency: Insights from Generalised Poisson Models," Infrastructures, vol. 9, no. 3, 2024.
[29] Y. Wada, Y. Asami, K. Hino, H. Nishi, S. Shiode, and N. Shiode, "Road Junction Configurations and the Severity of Traffic Accidents in Japan," Sustainability, vol. 15, no. 3, 2023.
[30] Z. Mou et al., "Spatial influence of engineering construction on traffic accidents, a case study of Jinan," Accident Analysis & Prevention, vol. 177, 2022.
[31] P. Z. Hao Sun ; Qiuping Wang, Yujian Zhong, Xiabing Yue, "Spatialtemporal Characteristics of Tunnel Traffic Accidents in China from 2001 to Present," Advances in Civil Engineering, 2019.
[32] M. M. H. a. M. A. Rahman, "Understanding the potential key risk factors associated with teen driver crashes in the United States: a literature review," Digital Transportation and Safety, 2023.
[33] Q. C. Z. L. P. T. Y. Zhao, "Reallocation of Heterogeneous Sensors on Road Networks for Traffic Accident Detection," IEEE, vol. 72, 2023.
[34] M. S. Alam and N. J. Tabassum, "Spatial pattern identification and crash severity analysis of road traffic crash hot spots in Ohio," Heliyon, vol. 9, no. 5, p. e16303, May 2023.
[35] K. Alkaabi, "Identification of hotspot areas for traffic accidents and analyzing drivers’ behaviors and road accidents," Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, vol. 22, 2023.
[36] A. R. A. R. Bashayar Alhajri , Nur Farizan Tarudin , Nafisah Khalid, and Dhafir Alshukaili, "SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF ROAD TRAFFIC ACCIDENT HOTSPOTS AND PATTERNS IN MUSCAT, OMAN: AN EXPLORATORY RISK MANAGEMENT ASSESSMENT," PLANNING MALAYSIA: Journal of the Malaysian Institute of Planners, vol. 22, no. 6, pp. 74 – 89, 2024.
[37] S. Chinnanarsaiah, "Identification of Hotspot Detection and Spatial Trends of Road Accidents using a GIS. A Case Study of Hyderabad," International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology, vol. 13, no. 9, pp. 463-472, 2025.
[38] M. Zheng et al., "Optimizing Kernel Density Estimation Bandwidth for Road Traffic Accident Hazard Identification: A Case Study of the City of London," Sustainability, vol. 16, no. 16, 2024.
[39] T. M. Rengarasu and H. K. I. Arunodi, "Identification of Traffic Accident Hotspots using Network Kernel Density: Application to Galle District in Sri Lanka," Journal of South Asian Logistics and Transport, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 1-23, 2025.
[40] D. R. I. Abid, "Identifying Spatial Patterns of Road Accidents in Madaba City by Applying Getis-Ord Gi* Spatial Statistic," International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 1-8, 2024.
[41] R. K. Mahato, K. M. Htike, K. Sornlorm, A. B. Koro, A. Kafle, and V. Sharma, "A spatial autocorrelation analysis of road traffic accidents by severity using Moran's I spatial statistics: a study from Nepal 2019-2022," BMC Public Health, vol. 24, no. 1, p. 3086, Nov 8 2024.
[42] K. G. L. ; and P. L. L.-T. Lin, "Determining the road traffic accident hotspots using GIS-based temporal-spatial statistical analytic techniques in Hanoi, Vietnam," pp. 153-164, 2019.
[43] E. S. R. J. L. Turbiville, "Navigating Road Safety and Equity: A GIS Analysis of Crash Data in Atlanta, GA," International Conference on Transportation and Development
2024.
[44] S. M. A. H. A. A. A. R. N. J. ; and P. Balakrishnan, "GIS-based spatiotemporal analysis for road traffic crashes; in support of sustainable transportation Planning," Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, vol. 20, 2023.
[45] C. A. I. Y. H. L. E. A. d. Melo, "Developing accident frequency prediction models for urban roads: A case study in São Paulo, Brazil," IATSS Research, vol. 48, no. 3, pp. 378-392, 2024.
[46] D. W. Y. H. Z. Cai, "A two-phase clustering approach for traffic accident black spots identification: integrated GIS-based processing and HDBSCAN model," International Journal of Injury Control and Safety Promotion, 2023.
[47] T. C. T. I. S. P. Y. P. L. Fu, "A GIS approach to the development of a segment-level derailment prediction model," Accident Analysis & Prevention, vol. 151.
[48] Q. Ma, G. Huang, and X. Tang, "GIS-based analysis of spatial–temporal correlations of urban traffic accidents," European Transport Research Review, vol. 13, no. 1, 2021.
[49] A. M. A. N. N. M. S. V. Khalifeh, "GIS-based crash hotspot identification: a comparison among mapping clusters and spatial analysis techniques," International Journal of Injury Control and Safety Promotion, pp. 325-338, 2021.
[50] F. J. K. K. R. Y. E. W. M. Lee, "Analysis of motorcycle accidents using association rule mining-based framework with parameter optimization and GIS technology," Journal of Safety Research, vol. 75, pp. 292-309, 2020.
[51] A. Mesic et al., "Identifying emerging hot spots of road traffic injury severity using spatiotemporal methods: longitudinal analyses on major roads in Ghana from 2005 to 2020," BMC Public Health, vol. 24, no. 1, p. 1609, Jun 17 2024.
[52] N. Saikrishna and P. D. R. Reddy, "A GIS Approach for Spatial Analysis of Traffic Accidents in the city of Hyderabad," International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention, vol. 13, no. 12, pp. 45-55, 2024.
[53] R. Yan, L. Hu, J. Li, and N. Lin, "Accident Severity Analysis of Traffic Accident Hot Spot Areas in Changsha City Considering Built Environment," Sustainability, vol. 16, no. 7, 2024.
[54] N. A. N. F. T. A. a. F. B. Fakih, "Traffic Collisions: Temporal Patterns and Severity-Weighted Hotspot Analysis," arxiv, 2026.
[55] D. Y. Q. Hamid Abdrhman , Hamza Shams , and Mohamed A. Damos, "GIS-Based Identification of Traffic Incident Hot Spots and Severity Index in Khartoum, Sudan," Tuijin Jishu/Journal of Propulsion Technology, vol. 45, no. 4, 2024.
[56] G. Bahati and E. Masabo, "Optimizing ambulance location based on road accident data in Rwanda using machine learning algorithms," Int J Health Geogr, vol. 24, no. 1, p. 23, Aug 27 2025.
[57] A. O. Odusola et al., "Spatial and temporal analysis of road traffic crashes and ambulance responses in Lagos state, Nigeria," BMC Public Health, vol. 23, no. 1, p. 2273, Nov 17 2023.
[58] w. s. a. yousuf, "Spatial Response to the Impacts of Traffic Accidents on Highways in Assiut Governorate A Study Using GIS," The International Journal of Informatics, Media and Communication Technology, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 0-0, 2024.
[59] D. S. Munasinghe, "Spatial Analysis of Urban Road Traffic Accidents Using GIS," British Journal of Multidisciplinary and Advanced Studies, vol. 4, no. 6, pp. 70-83, 2023.
[60] A. M. Tomasoni, A. Soussi, E. Zero, and R. Sacile, "A GIS-Based Safe System Approach for Risk Assessment in the Transportation of Dangerous Goods: A Case Study in Italian Regions," Systems, vol. 13, no. 7, 2025.
[61] R. Bhele, S. Dhungana, D. Chimoriya, A. Sapkota, and S. Ghorasaini, "Spatial and Temporal Analysis of Road Traffic Accidents Using GIS," International Journal on Engineering Technology, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1-18, 2024.
[62] S. Mohammed, A. H. Alkhereibi, A. Abulibdeh, R. N. Jawarneh, and P. Balakrishnan, "GIS-based spatiotemporal analysis for road traffic crashes; in support of sustainable transportation Planning," Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, vol. 20, 2023.
[63] T. Alsahfi, "Spatial and Temporal Analysis of Road Traffic Accidents in Major Californian Cities Using a Geographic Information System," ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, vol. 13, no. 5, 2024.
[64] J. Ambros, J. Elgner, V. Valentova, R. Bak, and M. Kiec, "Proactive safety assessment of urban through-roads based on GPS data," Archives of Transport, vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 113-125, 2024.
[65] O. D. Explorer. (2026). Injuries in road traffic accidents.
[66] M. A. H. a. T. C. Matisziw, "Measuring the spatiotemporal evolution of accident hot spots," Accident Analysis & Prevention, vol. 157.
[67] K. A. H. Destaw Kifile Endashaw, Baqer Muhammad Al-Ramadan, Hassan Musaed Al-Ahmadi & Basha Fayissa Deressa "A systematic review on GIS-based road traffic accidents analysis and road safety audit," Computational Urban Science, vol. 5, 2025.
[68] K. A. Abuhasel, "A GIS Approach for Analysis of Traffic Accident Hotspots in Abha and Bisha Cities, Saudi Arabia," Sustainability, 2023.
[69] H. A. Duhair, "Spatial analysis of serious traffic accidents in the city of Abha, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 1441 Using GIS," Egyptian Journals vol. 24, 2021.
[70] Y. Lee, "A new approach to identify critical causal factors and evaluate intervention strategies for mitigating major railway occurrences in Taiwan," Journal of Rail Transport Planning & Management, vol. 33, 2025.
[71] Q. Hou et al., "A note on data segmentation, sample size, and model specification for crash injury severity modeling," Analytic Methods in Accident Research, vol. 45, 2025.
[72] Y. Jiao and S. C. C. , Sander van Cranenburgh , Hans van Lint, "A unified probabilistic approach to traffic conflict detection," Analytic Methods in Accident Research, vol. 45, 2025.
[73] A. V. O. H. L. L. V. J. R. Øhlenschlæger, "The effect of periodic vehicle inspection on road traffic crash risk," Traffic Safety Research, vol. 6, 2024.
[74] W. Deng and X. M. , Weiliang Qiao "Resilience-oriented safety barrier performance assessment in maritime operational risk management," Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, vol. 139, 2025.
[75] T. Nishimoto, , K. Kubota, , and G. Ponte, "A vehicle occupant injury prediction algorithm based on road crash and emergency medical data," Journal of Safety Research, vol. 91, pp. 410-422, 2024.
[76] I. Abdulrashid, R. Z. F. , , S. Mammadov, , and M. Khalafalla, "Transport behavior and government interventions in pandemics: A hybrid explainable machine learning for road safety," Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review, vol. 193, 2025.
[77] X. Yan et al., "Driving risk identification of urban arterial and collector roads based on multi-scale data,"
Accident Analysis & Prevention, vol. 206, 2024.
[78] R. Tamakloe, , M. Khorasani, and I. K. , "Differences in injury severities between elderly and non-elderly taxi driver at-fault crashes: Temporal instability and out-of-sample prediction,"
Accident Analysis & Prevention, vol. 211, 2025.
[79] K. A. A. K. C. Tingvall, "Effects of automatic emergency braking systems to reduce risk of crash and serious injuries among pedestrians and bicyclists," Traffic Safety Research, vol. 9, 2025.
[80] Y.-L. H. a. Y.-H. Chen, "Estimating intersections' near-crash conflicts with the drone-based image-recording data," Traffic Safety Research, vol. 9, 2025.
[81] W. T. Gedamu, U. Plank-Wiedenbeck, and B. T. Wodajo, "A spatial autocorrelation analysis of road traffic crash by severity using Moran's I spatial statistics: A comparative study of Addis Ababa and Berlin cities," Accid Anal Prev, vol. 200, p. 107535, Jun 2024.
[82] P. Sae-Ngow, N. Kulpanich, M. Worachairungreung, N. Sittarachu, K. Thanakunwutthirot, and P. Hemwan, "Identification of Road Crash Zones, Spatial Patterns, and Emerging Hot Spots of Road Traffic Injury Severity in Phuket, Thailand," Geojournal of Tourism and Geosites, vol. 60, no. 2 supplement, pp. 1067-1077, 2025.
[83] B. Topcuoglu, T. Memisoglu Baykal, and H. Tuydes Yaman, "Speed-Related Traffic Accident Analysis Using Gis-Based Dbscan and Nnh Clustering," The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, vol. XLVIII-4/W1-2022, pp. 487-494, 2022.
[84] H. Wahyono, H. Setiaji, T. Hartati, and N. Wiliani, "K-Means Clustering for Identifying Traffic Accident Hotspots in Depok City," Journal of Applied Research In Computer Science and Information Systems, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 159-170, 2024.
[85] W. F. W. Yaacob, S. B. Ibrahim, A. S. Afizan, N. A. F. Azran, S. A. Md Nasir, and N. C. Harun, "Spatio-Temporal Clustering of Road Accidents in Kelantan, Malaysia," International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, vol. 11, no. 9, 2021.
[86] Y. Zhang, F. Zhu, Q. Li, Z. Qiu, and Y. Xie, "Exploring Spatiotemporal Patterns of Expressway Traffic Accidents Based on Density Clustering and Bayesian Network," ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, vol. 12, no. 2, 2023.
[87] N. Tippayanate, ; Impool, T. ; Sujayanont, P. ; Muttitanon, W., ; Chemin, Y. H. ; and Som-ard, J., "Spatial Distribution and Cluster Analysis of Road Traffic Accidents in Khon Kaen Municipality, Thailand," International Journal of Geoinformatics, 2024.
[88] W. T. Alexander Hohl ; Minrui Zheng, Eric Delmelle, and Irene Cases, Spatiotemporal Point Pattern Analysis Using Ripley's K Function (Geospatial Data Science Techniques and Applications). 2017.
[89] S. Y. a. A. Oloufa, "A Geospatial Framework for Spatiotemporal Crash Hotspot Detection Using Space–Time Cube Modeling and Emerging Pattern Analysis," Urban Science, 2025.
[90] R. N. S. a. B. K. Bhavathrathan, "Incorporating inconsistency patterns on road networks into crash modeling," Analytic Methods in Accident Research, vol. 43, 2024.
[91] G. A. S. A. F. a. M. S. Bahadori, "GIS-based spatial analysis of urban traffic accidents: Case study in Mashhad, Iran," Journal of Traffic and Transportation Engineering (English Edition), vol. 4, no. 3, 2017.
[92] K. G. L. P. L. a. L.-T. Lin, "Traffic accident hotspot identification by integrating kernel density estimation and spatial autocorrelation analysis: a case study," International Journal of Crashworthiness vol. 27, no. 2, 2022.
[93] M. M. M. a. J. Mateu, "First- and Second-Order Characteristics of Spatio-Temporal Point Processes on Linear Networks," Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 432-443, 2019.
[94] L. S. a. I. Srikanth, "A Case Study on Kernel Density Estimation and Hotspot Analysis Methods in Traffic Safety Management," IEEE, 2020.
[95] H. Ge, L. Dong, M. Huang, W. Zang, and L. Zhou, "Adaptive Kernel Density Estimation for Traffic Accidents Based on Improved Bandwidth Research on Black Spot Identification Model," Electronics, vol. 11, no. 21, 2022.
[96] F. J. K. K. R. Y. a. E. W. M. Lee, "Analysis of motorcycle accidents using association rule mining-based framework with parameter optimization and GIS technology," 2020.
[97] G. A. Shafabakhsh, A. Famili, and M. S. Bahadori, "GIS-based spatial analysis of urban traffic accidents: Case study in Mashhad, Iran," Journal of Traffic and Transportation Engineering (English Edition), vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 290-299, 2017.
[98] H. Hochmair, L. Juhász, and H. Li, "Advancing AI-Driven Geospatial Analysis and Data Generation: Methods, Applications and Future Directions," ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, vol. 14, no. 2, 2025.
[99] X. L. O. K. a. R. Zurita-Milla, "Incorporating Spatial Autocorrelation in Machine Learning Models Using Spatial Lag and Eigenvector Spatial Filtering Features," International Journal of Geo-Information (ISPRS ), 2022.
[100] A. M. Matthew J. Heaton, Jake S. Rhodes, "Adjusting for Spatial Correlation in Machine and Deep Learning," arxiv, 2024.
[101] E. D. a. M. Trigka, "Remote Sensing and Geospatial Analysis in the Big Data Era: A Survey," Remote Sensing, 2025.
[102] J. S. Qasem Safariallahkheili, and Sebastian Meier, "Interactive web-based Geospatial eXplainable Artificial Intelligence for AI model output exploration," AGILE: GIScience Series, 2025.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Muqdad Al Hamami, Salam Ridha Aletba, Norhidayah Abdul Hassan, Hashim Al-Sumaiday
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
